Research Design | Risks to Relapses in Alcoholism

Research Design | Risks to Relapses in Alcoholism CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION â€Å"There is this to be said in favor of drinking that it takes the drunk and first out of society then Out of the world.† Ralph Waldo Emerson Alcohol is a central nervous system stimulant at low doses, and depressant at higher doses. Alcohol beverages come in range of different strengths. Alcohol can include beer, wine, spirits (e.g. vodka, gin, whiskey, brandy, rum etc.).In India spirits, i.e. government licensed country, Indian made foreign liquors like rum, whiskey, vodka, gin and illicit distilled spirits constitute more than 95% alcohol consumption. (Jerald .K and Allan .T, 2006) Alcohol use disorders are among the most prevalent psychiatric disorder. Data from several epidemiological studies suggest that lifetime prevalence of alcohol use disorder in US is around 8 %.with as many as 25% suffering severe psychiatric disturbances. The most prevalent psychiatric symptoms are  anxiety  and  depression disorders. (Hasin et al., 2007) According to current concepts alcoholism is considered a disease and alcohol a â€Å"disease agent† which causes acute and chronic intoxication, cirrhosis of the liver, toxic psychosis, gastritis, pancreatitis, cardiomyopathy and peripheral neuropathy. Alcohol is an important etiological factor in suicide, automobile and other accidents and injuries and deaths due to violence. The health problem for which alcohol is responsible is only part of total social damage which includes family disorganization, crime and loss of productivity. (Morgan, M. Y. Ritson, E. B, 2009) The pattern of drinking in India has changed from occasional and ritualistic use to social use. These developments have raised concerns about the health and the social consequences of excessive drinking. Nearly 30% of Indian men and 5% of Indian women are regular users of alcohol. (Balakrishnan. D and Subirkumar Das, 2006) Canvin Rebecca, (2012) reported that social factors such as affordability and availability of alcohol, peer pressure and buying of rounds in groups may have a role in causing alcohol dependence. National institute of alcohol abuse and alcoholism (NIAAA, 2000) reported that Tolerance, impaired control, withdrawal and compulsive use are the elements of alcohol dependence and also they reported that 40% of genetic factors and 60% of environmental factors plays a role in consuming alcohol. A serious problem with the treatment of alcohol dependence individuals is very low rate of compliance abstinence about 20%.( Noda et.al 2001) and treatment success rates are 30-60% depending on outcome measures like abstinence, heavy drinking and social functioning. Alcohol detoxification can be defined as a period of medical treatment, usually including counselling, during which a person is helped to overcome physical and psychological dependence on alcohol (Chang and Kosten 1997). The immediate objectives of alcohol detoxification are to help the patient to achieve a substance free state, relieve the immediate symptoms of withdrawal, and treat any co- morbid medical or psychiatric conditions. Alcohol detoxification can be completed safely and effectively in both inpatient and outpatient treatment settings. The process of detoxification in either setting initially involves the assessment and treatment of acute withdrawal symptoms, which may range from mild (e.g., tremor and insomnia) to severe (e.g., autonomic hyperactivity, seizures, and delirium).Medications are provided to help the patient to reduce the withdrawal symptoms. Benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam and chlordiazepoxide) are the most commonly used drugs for this purpose, and their efficacy is well established. Benzodiazepines not only reduce alcohol withdrawal symptoms but also prevent an alcohol withdrawal seizure, which is estimated in 1 to 4% of withdrawal patients (Schuckit, 1997). Disulfiram (Antabuse) is used as an adjunct to enhance the probability of long-term sobriety. Although patient compliance is problematic, disulfiram therapy has successfully decreased frequency of drinking in alcoholics who could not remain abstinent. A study of supervised disulfiram administration reported significant periods of sobriety of up to 12 months in 60% of patients treated. (Hester., R.K and Miller, W.R., 1989) Additional components of alcohol detoxification may include education and counselling to help the patient prepare for long-term treatment, attendance at Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, recreational and social activities, and medical or surgical consultations. (Boyd, M.A, 2005). For patients with mild-to-moderate alcohol withdrawal syndrome, characterized by symptoms such as hand tremor, perspiration, heart palpitation, restlessness, loss of appetite, nausea/ vomiting, outpatient detoxification is as safe and effective as inpatient detoxification and is much less expensive and less time consuming. Among the drawbacks associated with outpatient detoxification is the increased risk of relapse resulting from the patient’s easy access to alcoholic beverages. In one of his study of 164 patients randomly assigned to inpatient or outpatient detoxification, significantly more inpatients than outpatients completed detoxification. (Hayashida et al. 1989) Miller et al. (1996) conducted a time expensive prospective study on post discharge functioning of 180 alcoholic patients. They concluded that relapse is a multidimensional construct that may be better understood if assessed in its multiple dimensions. Relapse promoting factors include anxiety, craving negative mood, childhood sexual abuse and psychological distress. (Gordon et al., 2006). Relapse inhibiting factors are self efficacy, social suppression, coping (Brown et al., 1995), spirituality, peer support, group attendance, continuing care and progressive involvement (Miller et al., 1999) The warning signs of relapse are Denial, Avoidance, Crisis, Confusion, Depression, Loss of Control regarding Behavior, Struggling with Personal Schedule and Self-Pity.(Ballard,K.A.,Kennedy,W.Z and O’Brien 2008). An analysis of 48 episodes of relapse revealed that most relapses were associated with three high-risk situations: (1) frustration and anger, (2) social pressure, and (3) interpersonal temptation. (Cooney. 1987) Desai et al, (1993) conducted a treatment outcome study of alcoholism and reported that among those who relapsed, the most common factor for drinking was negative emotional states.Among treated individuals, more severe alcohol-related problems and depressive symptoms, lack of self-efficacy and poor coping skills have been associated with short-term relapse. Terence T. Gorski Merlene Miller, (1982) Relapse does not begin with the first drink. Relapse begins when a person reactivates patterns of denial, isolation, elevated stress, and impaired judgment. Polich J.M, (1981) Relapse is so common in alcohol dependence patients and that it is estimated more than 90% of those trying to remain abstinent have at least one relapse before they achieve lasting sobriety.Foster et al (2000) report a study of 64 alcohol-dependent patients admitted for either 7 or 28 days of alcohol detoxification treatment. About 60% relapsed over the 3-month follow-up period. Marlatt G.A and Gardon J.R (1980) Another way to reduce drug relapse is through relapse prevention strategies. Relapse prevention attempts to group the factors that contribute to relapse into two broad categories: 1. Immediate determinants 2. Covert antecedents. Immediate determinants are the environmental and emotional situations that are associated with relapse, including high-risk situations that threaten an individual’s sense of control,andexpectancies. Covert antecedents, which are less obvious factors influencing relapse, include lifestyle factors such as stress level and balance, urges and  cravings. The relapse prevention model teaches addicts to anticipate relapse by recognizing and coping with various immediate determinants and covert antecedents. NEED FOR THE STUDY APA (2000), reported that Alcohol dependence, or alcoholism, is often a progressive chronic disorder and recognized as a disease. It is a common disorder posing a heavy burden on patients, their families, and society. It has a high prevalence rate compared with many other diseases and highlights the public health significance. At international level, GISAH (2005). The Global Information System on Alcohol and Health reported that the harmful use of alcohol results in the death of 2.5 million people annually. There are 60 different types of diseases where alcohol has a significant causal role. It also causes harm to the well-being and health of people living around the drinker. In 2005, the worldwide total consumption was equal to 6.13 liters of pure alcohol per person at 15 years and older. Unrecorded consumption accounts for nearly 30% of the worldwide total adult consumption. (Pratima Murthy, 2010) Alcohol dependence is recognised as mental health disorders by the World Health Organization. It ranked alcohol as the third most important risk factor for the increase in the number of disability-adjusted life years in Portugal, as well as in Europe, preceded by tobacco smoking (second risk factor) and hypertension (first risk factor) .WHO ,(2005) Alcohol related hospital admissions increased by 85% between 2002/03 and 2008/09, accounting for 945,000 admissions with a primary or secondary diagnosis wholly or partly related to alcohol in 2006/07 and comprising 7% of all hospital admissions. (North West Public Health Observatory, 2010). (Pratima Murthy, 2010) Manickam, (1994) reported that in Kerala the approximate number of people being de addicted would be 255 in a year at one centre. Through all the centres, the number of people de addicted would be 308557. After the first month following an alcohol detoxification, relapse rates range between 19% for inpatients and 34% for outpatients and increase to about 46 and 48% respectively, after 6 months (Hayashida et al.,1989) in California In national alcohol survey to assess the risk of relapse in people with remitted alcohol dependence, they assessed 17772 adults of alcohol use and alcohol use disorder and followed for 3 years. At the baseline interview, 25% of subjects drank risky amounts, 38% drank lower-risk amounts, and 37% abstained. They concluded that relapse is common among people in remission from alcohol dependence and much more likely if they are drinking risky amounts. The results support the need to carefully monitor and support abstinence in people with remitted alcohol dependence. NIAA (2000) National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcohol reported approximately 90% of alcoholics will experience one or more relapses during the four years after treatment. By understanding what the common relapse triggers are, we will be better prepared to maintain sobriety and live the healthy life we want. Prasad (1996) in a treatment outcome study reported a relapse rate of 41% at 6 months follow up of alcohol dependence patients which was conducted in NIMHANS, Bangalore. Prakash et al. (1997), conducted a study on relapse in alcoholism, found negative emotional states as a major interpersonal trigger for relapse in Bangalore. Elis and McClure, (1992) conducted a meta analysis and found that about 6 of 10 patients with alcohol dependence will relapse in the 6 months following detoxification, as estimated by the median of 61% relapse rate obtained in several studies. This high rate of relapse in a relatively short period is a reason for searching for the factors that better predict treatment outcomes. During the observational visit, in Kasturba deaddiction centre, the researcher came across many alcohol dependence patients. There she identified the relapsed cases of alcohol dependence patients and she enquired with the relapsed patients about their return to drinking. They said many of the reasons like family problems, financial problems, participation in ritual functions, peer pressure and unable to control their thoughts of drinking. This triggers the researcher to reduce the relapse cases by identifying the risk factors earlier by using the relapse risk assessment tools during their follow up periods in deaddiction centre. So the researcher undertook this study as a stepping stone to identify or to explore the risk of relapse of alcohol dependence patients under detoxification treatment. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM A study to explore the risk of relapse in alcohol dependence patients who are under detoxification treatment in kasturba deaddiction centre, Coimbatore. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY To assess the risk of relapse in alcohol dependence patients under detoxification treatment To associate the risk of relapse in alcohol dependence patients who are under detoxification treatment with selected demographic and clinical variables. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION Relapse Refers falling back into a state of previous drinking after detoxification treatment which is measured by alcohol relapse risk scale. Alcohol dependence patient Alcohol dependence is a substance related disorder in which an individual is addicted to alcohol both physically and mentally, and continues to use alcohol despite significant areas of dysfunction. In this study it refers patients who are coming for follow up under detoxification treatment in kasturba deaddiction centre. Detoxification treatment Refers to a treatment in alcohol dependence patients for removal of existing toxins from the body which is accumulated because of alcoholism by using drugs like Librium, Diazepam, and Lorazepam. ASSUMPTION Relapse may be common and predictable in alcohol dependence patients under detoxification treatment. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to an idea or thought. Also its a theoretical structure of assumptions, principles, and rules that holds together the ideas comprising a broad concept. The  transtheoretical modelof behavior change assess an individuals readiness to act on a new healthier behavior, and provides strategies, or processes of change to guide the individual through the stages of change to Action and Maintenance. James O. Prochaska  of the  University of Rhode Island  and colleagues developed the transtheoretical model of behaviour change in 1977.It is based on analysis and use of different theories of psychotherapy, hence the name transtheoretical. STAGES OF CHANGE There are 5 stages in transtheoretical model. Change is a process involving progress through a series of stages. STAGE I: PRECONTEMPLATION (NOT READY) The process of change of alcohol drinking behaviour of an alcohol dependence individual starts with consciousness- raising about ill effects of alcohol by public medias like television, radio, and internet and also through newspaper, health magazines etc. STAGE II: CONTEMPLATION (GETTING READY) The alcohol dependence individual evaluates himself about his alcohol drinking behaviour and imagines how he will be when he stops the alcohol drinking behaviour. STAGE III: PREPARATION (READY) The individual realizes that the society is also not supporting the unhealthy behaviours like alcohol drinking. So he makes commitments to change this unhealthy behaviour by believing his ability to change. STAGE IV: ACTION The alcohol dependence individual makes discussion with his family and friends about changing the alcohol drinking behaviour.With family and friends support he approaches deaddiction centre to change his alcohol drinking behaviour. STAGE V: MAINTENANCE After getting inpatient detoxification, the alcohol dependence individuals are coming regularly for follow up visits to deaddiction centre and they are teaching about cue control measures,mainteneance of self efficacy and how to manage high risk situations. After the maintenance the alcohol dependence individual will enter either into: TERMINATION – the alcohol dependence individual possess zero temptation and craving and they are sure they will not return to their old unhealthy habit as a way of coping. RELAPSE-The alcohol dependence individual return from Action or Maintenance stage to his earlier unhealthy alcohol drinking behaviour because of stimulus induced vulnerability factors,emotionality problems,compulsivity for alcohol,lack of negative expectancy for alcohol and positive expectancy for alcohol. Intersectionality: Making a difference Intersectionality: Making a difference Intersectionality is defined as the relationships among multiple dimensions of identities and modalities of social relations and experiences of exclusion and subordination, including gender, class, race, ethnicity, nationality and sexuality (Collins 2000; McCall 2005; Davis 2008). It starts on the premise that everyone live multiple, layered identities. The theory attempts to expose the different types of discrimination and disadvantages that occur as a consequence of the combination of biological, social and cultural identities (AWID 2004). Intersectionality, as coined by Crenshaw (1989) attempts to address the fact that the experiences and struggles of women of colour fell between the cracks of both feminist and anti-racist discourse (AWID 2004; Davis 2008). Subsequently, this concept had extended to the understanding of women holding different disadvantaged social identities. Such intersections indicate that oppression cannot be reduced to one fundamental type, and that oppressions intersect together in producing injustice and inequality, instead of multiplying around the different social identities (Collins 2000; Conanhan 2009; Yuval-Davis 2007). An understanding of intersectionality suggested the attainment of political and social equality of disadvantaged women and improving the global democratic system (Harjunen 2008). This paper attempts to understand the intersection of social identities of Foreign Domestic Workers (FDWs) in Singapore. The number of women coming into Singapore to work as a FDW had increased over the years, and the increment of these outsiders had created many negative stigmas towards them, discursively created by the State and the society. By understanding the intersectionality these women face, it will establish an understanding of what shapes their experiences and opportunities as an FDW in a foreign land. Domain of study: Foreign Domestic Worker (FDW) in Singapore As the temporary home to 196,000 Foreign Domestic Workers (FDWs) and an estimate of employment of one live-in domestic worker in every five households (Daipi 2010), Singapore was and is an immigrant society. The FDW performs various household and maintenance chores for the families, including cooking, cleaning and care-giving to the young and elderly. Evidently, many FDWs now are the caregiver for babies and toddlers while their mothers were obliged to put in long working hours in the old male model and subordinate their family time for work demands. This may constitute more than mere care-giving, where many FDWs devote their love and emotional attachment to their young employers as a response to what the FDWs cannot provide for her own child (Hochschild 2004). With the introduction of the Foreign Maid Scheme in 1978  [1]  , labour mobilization of women was promoted by the government which prioritises economic development that brought about the significance of the Singapore femal e labour. FDWs have since been a visible feature of households in Singapore. This gradually led to the outlook of an ideal family in the Singapore context that comprises not only the kin but also the fictive kin. The ideal family in Singapore is one that consists of two working parents, a foreign maid who looks after their child(ren) and an older relative usually a grandmother to supervise the domestic worker (Teo 2011). According to Ochiai (2010), the model of Care Diamonds as proposed depicts patterns of care provision in each society in four different sectors, namely the State, the Market, the Family (and Relatives) and the Community. C:UsersshiminDesktopPicture1.png Figure . Care Diamonds in Singapore In the Singapore context, we see that there is a good proportion of care responsibility of familialism falling onto the Market, which reflects the bulk of welfare responsibility towards its members, in terms of both income distribution and care provision (Ochiai 2010) falling from the Family into the hands of the foreign domestic and care workers from the Market. This signifies the importance and prevalence of FDW in Singapore families, in both child care and elder care. It also shows the trend where families are now more prone in outsourcing their filial piety, which is also known as liberal familialism as the cost of purchasing care services is still borne by the family (Ochiai 2010). This is constituted as discussed from the increase participation of female labour into the workforce that displaces the natural caregiver role from the woman in the family to the woman from the market. Outsourcing the domestic chores in the house to the FDWs living in, they may become not merely an employee but close to a fictive kin through the constant interactions. This propels the assignment of kin relationships to non-family who embody the special characteristics of family, and are those who provide caregiving and emotional attachment like family and are given the labour of kin with its attendant affection, rights, and obligations (Gubruim and Buckholdt 1982; Tronto 1993; Karner 1998). FDW and Singaporeans  [2]   FDWs in Singapore are live-in domestic helpers (Ministry of Manpower 2013), and this establishes a close fictive kinship living under one roof. As a Singaporean who was raised by a kin (instead of a fictive kin) all my life, I decided to interview some employers of FDWs and learn about how they perceive these supposedly fictive kin. In my understanding, the acknowledgement of the status of a fictive kin has to be conscious between the FDW and the employer like a two-way traffic. This contradicted with the literature definition (Tronto 1993) which only addresses fictive kin as a person who provides kin-like care. Though most of these employers deem the help of FDWs to ease their load in housework, some of them do not recognise the FDWs as a fictive kin, but as a mere employee who I hire with money. For the employers who do not deem the FDWs as helpful, they made frequent complaints about the FDWs work including criticism such as stupid and clumsy towards the FDWs productivity in front of others in the presence of the FDW, lack of appreciation by saying please or thank you or blamed for mistakes that were not committed by the FDWs. This can adversely affect the psychological well-being of the FDW who are labelled as quiet indignities. Moreover, research shows that though there is a decrease in maid abuse cases in Singapore for the past 10 years, there still possesses a great number of cases where FDWs were stripped of basic human rights, including not being allowed to go out of the house, not having enough time to rest and having a heavy workload (Transient Workers Count Too 2011). This affects the physical well-being of the FDWs. The psychologically and physical well-being of the FDWs tend to be jeopardised in Singapore because of the inferior-superior mentality held by the employers towards their FDWs. A minute fraction of the employers acknowledged the FDWs as a great help in the house and a fictive kin, where these employers will buy new clothes for the FDWs, invites her to join in for dinners, and bring her along during family vacations. FDW and Intersectionality Figure . Intersectionality in FDWs in Singapore As a FDW, some of the axes of social identities that she holds include the intersection of her gender, nationality and social class. Each of these axes contributes to inequality on its own facet, and a complete picture will be portrayed when these facets intersect. As a social construct, gender emphasises the biological and psychological differences between man and women, which had constituted to the inherent power relationships. Nationality is also a social construct that emphasises on the basis of the arbitrary division and belongingness towards geographical spaces. Social class as a social identity determines the access to resources, which then shapes the power and position of the individual and the family in the society. Notably, these FDWs braved through obstacles to come to a foreign land alone to work in. The inherent power relations from different social identities differentiated the FDW and the employer, in an in-group-out-group context. This empowers employers to discriminate and oppress these FDWs which affect their opportunities and experiences as a FDW in Singapore, and it is tougher when she is helpless without the support of her community. Gender and Social Class In Singapore, FDWs had been portrayed as the lowest strata in the society. The society, constituted by the local policies  [3]  , associated an FDW to only the female gender. The legalization of the legislation that FDWs are strictly females also constitute to the internalization and naturalization of women occupying jobs in this sector. Comparatively, their female counterparts in Singapore were able to enjoy an overall increase in access to education, higher education, healthcare from the industrialization of the nation in the late 1960s, allowing Singapore to attain one of the highest standards of living amongst its neighbours in Southeast Asia. This improvement of status was not universal and not extended to the FDWs, who were mainly from Indonesia and Philippines (Humans Right Watch 2005; Arifin 2012). Despite both females being conformed in a patriarchal society in Singapore, the FDWs and the Singapore females were clearly distinct in their class status which is evident from the developments of the two groups of countries. This is despite that many FDWs were college graduates (International Labour Organisation 2007) but still segregated into the low-wage, low-prestige domestic work in Singapore. This instils a superior-inferior relationship between Singaporeans and FDWs. This hence led to negative stigmas from the Singapore women who were the employers, who acknowledged the FDWs as their assistance and also their inferior (Arifin 2012). Gender and Nationality As the policies  [4]  in Singapore discourage Singaporean women to participate in the domestic service sector, there is a synonym of women from the sending countries (predominantly Indonesia and Philippines) as maids in Singapore (Human Rights Watch 2005; Law and Nadeau 2009). As the provision of domestic service is seen as difficult, dirty and demeaning, these FDWs are portrayed as unskilled labour. In the patriarchal society, these women are not duly respected for their contributions, yet perceived as inferior as of their gender as a female and their nationality recognised as sending countries for FDWs both identities equating to the identity of maid. This created a discursive idea of FDWs as Other in the society. They are held with sharp contrast with other foreigners who come to Singapore with better skills, commonly addressed as foreign talent or expatriates. The call for talent capital from places such as United Kingdom, Australia and North America had allowed Singapore to be ranked as the top expat destination in the world (HSBC 2012). Evidently, the economic and social development between the two groups of origin countries differs greatly. Though there are more FDWs than foreign expatriates in the country (National Population and Talent Division 2013), there is a huge disparity between, in their income, respect received, and inherent stigma since these foreign expatriates are the people with the ability to hire these FDWs despite both being foreigners in the country. Discourses by the State portray FDWs as a sexual and social threat that breaks up Singaporean families and portrays expatriates as saviours of National Survival (Koh 2003; Human Rights Watch 2005). The demonization by the State further deepens the existing stereotypes towards FDWs. Intersection of social identities The intersection of gender, social class and nationality constructed the negative stigma of these FDWs in Singapore. It created a social hierarchy where FDWs were strained to the lowest strata without any mobility. Mobility is prohibited by the government through their policies that forbid FDWs to be covered under the Employment Act, or to be able to obtain citizenship from her length of stay and contribution to the economy (Human Rights Watch 2012; Ministry of Manpower 2013). In contrast, mobility is made available in countries like Canada where their live-in caregivers are permitted for permanent residence in Canada after two years of authorized live-in employment in Canadian households (Citizenship and Immigration Canada 2013). Reduced as a commodity in the global labour market, the FDWs brought about seemly traces of slavery in the modern world. Without adequate social and legal recognition for paid domestic service, the commercialised employment relationship with these fictive-kin FDWs can only be confined in an oppressive, family-like hierarchy. FDWs often engages in a power struggle (and often lose out) as they are not in any position, financially or psychologically, to negotiate their working conditions even if they deem it over exhaustive (Ueno 2008). With the improvement in social aspects in life including educational profile and healthcare for women, we see an increase of 10.3% in the women participating in the labour force in Singapore for the past 10 years (Ministry of Manpower 2011). With more women expected to participate in the economy in the future, there will be an increase in the care gap in families which signifies the greater need for FDWs. However, this may also means there will be more opportunities for oppressions to take place that will further undermine the physical and psychological well-being of FDWs. The next step: Recognition The struggle of FDWs in Singapore exceeds more than what the intersectionality of social identities as discussed they also have to struggle with their employers lack of appreciation of FDWs as a fictive kin. This can be problematic because a fictive kin relationship improves the quality of care and retrieves personal meanings for both the provider and the recipient (Lan 2003) and the oppression will be a hinder to the delivery of a kin-like care service. However, their social identities which are ascribed rather than achieved, confines them into a superior-inferior relationship with their female counterparts in Singapore. It reciprocates if an employer is more understanding to the FDW and evidently the appreciation will be mutual. Institutions such as the employer and the State can step in to improve the situation where both the sending and receiving countries can include FDWs into Employment Acts to protect them from physical and psychological harm, and to provide them with basic rights extended to every employee. As employers, one has to be reflexive and mindful that the FDW is also another human being with her own thoughts, feelings and behaviours, and hence behaving as a proper employer who treats her FDW well, even to the extent of a fictive kin, will be a good capital for the family members. By being aware of how they understanding their own experience and how their social identities intersect, it is empathetic to relate to how these women struggle through oppressions, all by herself. Appendix Foreign Maid Scheme in Singapore In 1978, Singapore introduced the Foreign Maid Scheme which permits the employment of women from selected Asian countries as live-in domestic workers (UNIFEM Singapore 2011). The scheme is introduced to encourage the participation of local women in the formal economy by introducing an extra helper to maintain the family. The high and steady rate of economic growth demanded massive number of labour in all sectors. The low population and low fertility rate of Singaporeans thus was not able to fulfil the demands of the labour market. Moreover, Singaporeans were not keen to work in the unskilled sectors including domestic work, as influenced by the rising socioeconomic conditions and educational level of Singaporeans. According to the Ministry of Manpower, FDWs will be employed under strict regulations, including their source country, age and educational attainment, and subsequent regulations inbound which assures their transience. These regulations were set forth as the political leaders assume that the presence of unskilled migrant workers and domestic workers will disrupt the Singapore society if left unregulated (Yeoh and Annadhurai 2008). Requirements for a Foreign Domestic Worker The following summarises the FDWs requirements in Singapore (Ministry of Manpower 2013. The list of requirements can be found in: http://www.mom.gov.sg/foreign-manpower/passes-visas/work-permit-fdw/before-you-apply/Pages/basic-requirements-of-a-foreign-domestic-worker.aspx: C:UsersshiminDesktopPicture2.png Intersectionality as a critique to Multiple Discrimination Mentioned in the EU Report on the Multiple Discrimination in EU Law, EU initially had a sole definition of multiple discrimination as an overarching notion, neutral notion for all instances of discrimination between multiple domains including race, age, language, ethnicity, culture, religion or disability or because they are indigenous people (UN 1995). The definition of intersectionality debated the EU legal discourse and reinforces the importance of encompassing the notion of gender as an important domain when it discusses the discrimination suffered primarily by the intersection of domains in many instances of discrimination suffered especially by women. It criticises that the mathematical notion that may be conjured by multiplying around the separate strands of discrimination which in reality intersect (Conanhan 2009; Yuval-Davis 2007). Precision Agriculture: Advantages and Disadvantages Precision Agriculture: Advantages and Disadvantages Precision agriculture Precision farming or precision agriculture is an agricultural concept relying on the existence of in-field variability. It requires the use of new technologies, such as global positioning (GPS), sensors, satellites or aerial images, and information management tools (GIS) to assess and understand variations. Collected information may be used to more precisely evaluate optimum sowing density, estimate fertilizers and other inputs needs, and to more accurately predict crop yields. It seeks to avoid applying inflexible practices to a crop, regardless of local soil/climate conditions, and may help to better assess local situations of disease or lodging. Satellites allow farmers to easily survey their land.[2] Global Positioning Systems (GPS) monitor can find the location of a field to within one meter. It can then present a series of GIS maps that demonstrate which fields are moist or dry, and where there is erosion of soil and other soil factors that stunt crop growth. The data can be used by the farmer to automatically regulate the machine application of fertilizer and pesticide[2]. In the American Midwest (US) it is associated not with sustainable agriculture but with mainstream farmers who are trying to maximize profits by spending money only in areas that need fertilizer. This practice allows the farmer to vary the rate of fertilizer across the field according to the need identified by GPS guided Grid Sampling. Fertilizer that would have been spread in areas that dont need it can be placed in areas that do, thereby optimizing its use. Precision farming may be used to improve a field or a farm management from several perspectives: agronomical perspective: adjustment of cultural practices to take into account the real needs of the crop (e.g., better fertilization management) technical perspective: better time management at the farm level (e.g. planning of agricultural activity) environmental perspective: reduction of agricultural impacts (better estimation of crop nitrogen needs implying limitation of nitrogen run-off) economical perspective: increase of the output and/or reduction of the input, increase of efficiency (e.g., lower cost of nitrogen fertilization practice) Other benefits for the farmer geostatistics integrated farming Integrated Pest Management nutrient budgeting nutrient management precision viticulture Agriculture Landsat program Geostatistics is a branch of statistics focusing on spatiotemporal datasets. Developed originally to predict probable distributions for mining operations, it is currently applied in diverse disciplines including petroleum geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, meteorology, oceanography, geochemistry, geometallurgy, geography, forestry, environmental control, landscape ecology, soil science, and agriculture (esp. in precision farming). Geostatistics is applied in varied branches of geography, particularly those involving the spread of disease (epidemiology), the practice of commerce and military planning (logistics), and the development of efficient spatial networks. Geostatistics are incorporated in tools such as geographic information systems (GIS) and digital elevation models. History This section requires expansion with: details. Background When any phenomena is measured, the observation methodology will dictate the accuracy of subsequent analysis; in geography, this issue is complicated by unique variables and spatial patterns such as geospatial topology. An interesting feature in geostatistics is that every location displays some form of spatial pattern, whether in the form of the environment, climate, pollution, urbanization or human health. This is not to state that all variables are spatially dependent, simply that variables are incapable of measurement separate from their surroundings, such that there can be no perfect control population. Whether the study is concerned with the nature of traffic patterns in an urban core, or with the analysis of weather patterns over the Pacific, there are always variables which escape measurement; this is determined directly by the scale and distribution of the data collection, or survey, and its methodology. Limitations in data collection make it impossible to make a direct meas ure of continuous spatial data without inferring probabilities, some of these probability functions are applied to create an interpolation surface predicting unmeasured variables at innumerable locations. Geostatistical terms Regionalized variable theory Covariance function Semi-variance Variogram Kriging Range (geostatistics) Sill (geostatistics) Nugget effect Criticism A major contributor to this section (or its creator) appears to have a conflict of interest with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedias content policies, particularly neutral point of view. Please discuss further on the talk page. ({{{November 2009}}}) Jan W Merks, a mineral sampling expert consultant from Canada, has strongly criticized[1] geostatistics since 1992. Referring to it as voodoo science[2] and scientific fraud, he claims that geostatistics is an invalid branch of statistics. Merks submits[2] that geostatistics ignores the variance of Agterbergs distance-weighted average point grade, ignores the concept of degrees of freedom of a data set when testing for spatial dependence by applying Fishers F-test to the variance of a set and the first variance term of the ordered set, abuses statistics by not using analysis of variance properly, replaced genuine variances of single distance-weighted average point grades with pseudo-variances of sets of distance-weighted average point grades, violating the one-to-one correspondence between variances and functions such as Agterbergs distance-weighted average point grade. Furthermore, Merks claims geostatistics inflates mineral reserve and resources such as in the case of Bre-Xs fraud. Merkss expertise and credibility are supported by several company executives, who regularly hire his consulting services[3]. Philip and Watson have also criticized geostatistics in the past [4]. There is a consensus that inappropriate use of geostatistics makes the method susceptible to erroneous reading of results[3][5]. Related software gslib is a set of fortran 77 routines (open source) implementing most of the classical geostatistics estimation and simulation algorithms sgems is a cross-platform (windows, unix), open-source software that implements most of the classical geostatistics algorithms (kriging, Gaussian and indicator simulation, etc) as well as new developments (multiple-points geostatistics). It also provides an interactive 3D visualization and offers the scripting capabilities of python. gstat is an open source computer code for multivariable geostatistical modelling, prediction and simulation. The gstat functionality is also available as an S extension, either as R package or S-Plus library. besides gstat, R has at least six other packages dedicated to geostatistics and other areas in spatial statistics. Notes 1. ^ A website that criticizes Matheronian geostatistics ^ a b See (Merks 1992) 3. ^ a b Sandra Rubin, Whistleblower raises doubts over ore bodies, Financial Post, September 30, 2002. ^ See (Philip and Watson 1986). 5. ^ Statistics for Spatial Data, Revised Edition, Noel A. C. Cressie, ISBN 978-0-471-00255-0. References 1. Armstrong, M and Champigny, N, 1988, A Study on Kriging Small Blocks, CIM Bulletin, Vol 82, No 923  Armstrong, M, 1992, Freedom of Speech? De Geeostatisticis, July, No 14 3. Champigny, N, 1992, Geostatistics: A tool that works, The Northern Miner, May 18 4. Clark I, 1979, Practical Geostatistics, Applied Science Publishers, London 5. David, M, 1977, Geostatistical Ore Reserve Estimation, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam 6. Hald, A, 1952, Statistical Theory with Engineering Applications, John Wiley Sons, New York 7. Chilà ¨s, J.P., Delfiner, P. 1999. Geostatistics: modelling spatial uncertainty, Wiley Series in Probability and Mathematical Statistics, 695 pp. 8. Deutsch, C.V., Journel, A.G, 1997. GSLIB: Geostatistical Software Library and Users Guide (Applied Geostatistics Series), Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 369 pp., http://www.gslib.com/ 9. Deutsch, C.V., 2002. Geostatistical Reservoir Modeling, Oxford University Press, 384 pp., http://www.statios.com/WinGslib/index.html 10. Isaaks, E.H., Srivastava R.M.: Applied Geostatistics. 1989. 11. ISO/DIS 11648-1 Statistical aspects of sampling from bulk materials-Part1: General principles 12. Journel, A G and Huijbregts, 1978, Mining Geostatistics, Academic Press 13:.Kitanidis, P.K.: Introduction to Geostatistics: Applications in Hydrogeology, Cambridge University Press. 1997. 14. Lantuà ©joul, C. 2002. Geostatistical simulation: models and algorithms. Springer, 256 pp. 15. Lipschutz, S, 1968, Theory and Problems of Probability, McCraw-Hill Book Company, New York. 16. Matheron, G. 1962. Traità © de gà ©ostatistique appliquà ©e. Tome 1, Editions Technip, Paris, 334 pp. 17. Matheron, G. 1989. Estimating and choosing, Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 18. McGrew, J. Chapman, Monroe, Charles B., 2000. An introduction to statistical problem solving in geography, second edition, McGraw-Hill, New York. 19. Merks, J W, 1992, Geostatistics or voodoo science, The Northern Miner, May 18 20. Merks, J W, Abuse of statistics, CIM Bulletin, January 1993, Vol 86, No 966 21. Myers, Donald E.; What Is Geostatistics? 22. Philip, G M and Watson, D F, 1986, Matheronian Geostatistics; Quo Vadis?, Mathematical Geology, Vol 18, No 1 23. Sharov, A: Quantitative Population Ecology, 1996, http://www.ento.vt.edu/~sharov/PopEcol/popecol.html 24. Shine, J.A., Wakefield, G.I.: A comparison of supervised imagery classification using analyst-chosen and geostatistically-chosen training sets, 1999, http://www.geovista.psu.edu/sites/geocomp99/Gc99/044/gc_044.htm 25. Strahler, A. H., and Strahler A., 2006, Introducing Physical Geography, 4th Ed., Wiley. 26. Volk, W, 1980, Applied Statistics for Engineers, Krieger Publishing Company, Huntington, New York. 27. Wackernagel, H. 2003. Multivariate geostatistics, Third edition, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 387 pp. 28. Yang, X. S., 2009, Introductory Mathematics for Earth Scientists, Dunedin Academic Press, 240pp. 29. Youden, W J, 1951, Statistical Methods for Chemists: John Wiley Sons, New York. External links Kriging link, contains explanations of variance in geostats Arizona university geostats page A resource on the internet about geostatistics and spatial statistics On-Line Library that chronicles Matherons journey from classical statistics to the new science of geostatistics Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostatistics Categories: Geostatistics Hidden categories: Statistics articles needing expert attention | Articles needing expert attention from August 2009 | All articles needing expert attention | Articles lacking in-text citations from January 2009 | All articles lacking in-text citations | Articles to be expanded from January 2010 | All articles to be expanded | Wikipedia expand-section box with explanation text | Articles to be expanded from August 2008 | Wikipedia articles with sections containing possible conflicts of interest Integrated farming (or integrated agriculture) is a commonly and broadly used word to explain a more integrated approach to farming as compared to existing monoculture approaches. It refers to agricultural systems that integrate livestock and crop production and may sometimes be known as Integrated Biosystems. While not often considered as part of the permaculture movement Integrated Farming is a similar whole systems approach to agriculture[1]. There have been efforts to link the two together such as at the 2007 International Permaculture Conference in Brazil[2]. Agro-ecology (which was developed at University of California Santa Cruz) and Bio-dynamic farming also describe similar integrated approaches. Examples include: pig tractor systems where the animals are confined in crop fields well prior to planting and plow the field by digging for roots poultry used in orchards or vineyards after harvest to clear rotten fruit and weeds while fertilizing the soil cattle or other livestock allowed to graze cover crops between crops on farms that contain both cropland and pasture (or where transhumance is employed) Water based agricultural systems that provide way for effective and efficient recycling of farm nutrients producing fuel, fertilizer and a compost tea/mineralized irrigation water in the process. In 1993 FARRE (Forum de lAgriculture Raisonnà ©e Respecteuse lEnvironnement) developed agricultural techniques France as part of an attempt to reconcile agricultural methods with the principles of sustainable development. FARRE, promotes an integrated and/or multi-sector approach to food production that includes profitability, safety, animal welfare, social responsibility and environmental care. Zero Emissions Research and Initiatives (formed in 1994 by the eco-entrepreneur [1]) developed a similar approach to FARRE seeking to promote agricultural and industrial production models that sought to incorporate natures wisdom into the process. ZERI helped support an effort by an environmental engineer from Mauritius named George Chan. Chan working with a network of poly-culture farming pioneers began refining Integrated Farming practices that had already been developed in south-east Asia in the 60,70s and 80s, building on the ancient Night soil farming practice. In China, programs embracing this form of integrated farming have been successful in demonstrating how an intensive growing systems can use organic and sustainable farming practices, while providing a high agriculture yield. Taking what he learned from the Chinese during his time there, Chan worked at the UN University in the 1990s and forwarded an approach to Integrated Farming which was termed Integrated Biomass Systems working specifically under the UNU/ZERI ZERI Bag Program. Chan during his work with UNU sought to make the case that Integrated Biomass Systems were well suited to help small island nations and low lying tropical regions become more self-reliant and prosperous in the production of food[3]. Working with ZERI, he developed several prototypes for this approach around the world including sites in Namibia and Fiji. The scientifically verified results in a UNDP sponsored congress in 1997 resulted in the adoption of the IBS by the State Government of Paranà ¡, Brazil where dozens of piggeries have applied the system generating food, energy while improving health and environmental conditions. Montfort Boys Town in Fiji was one of the first Integrated Biomass Systems developed outside of Southeast Asia with the support of UNU, UNDP and other international agencies. The project which is still operational continues to be a model of how farm operations can provide multiple benefits to stakeholders both local and international. ZERI Bag had a significant African component that included assisting Father Godfrey Nzamujo in the development of the Songhai Farm Integrated Farming project in Benin[4] . Most recently The Heifer Foundation a major international NGO based in the USA has taken a lead role in deploying Integrated Farming so that it can be replicated globally as an effective approach to sustainable farming in non-affluent regions such as Vietnam[5]. References 1. ^ Steve Divers work linking Integrated Farming with Permaculture: http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/perma.html 2. ^ Report includes reference to presentation on Integrated Farming by permaculture and ZERI practitioner Eric Fedus and Alexandre Takamatsu 3. ^ Small Islands and ZERI: A unique case for the Application of ZERI: A Paper presented by George Chan of the United Nations University at an International Symposium on Small Islands and Sustainable Development organized by the United Nations University and the National Land Agency of Japan: http://www.gdrc.org/oceans/chan.html 4. ^ ZERI Bag was designed to focus on small scale deployment of appropriate technologies with a focus on the Integrated Biomass System approach developed by ZERI and George Chan http://www.zeri.unam.na/africa.htm 5. ^ http://www.heifer.org/site/c.edJRKQNiFiG/b.2877337/ External links FARRE homepage Integrated farming of fish, crop and livestock Design an construction of an intergated fish farm Integrated Farming System by George Chan wiki on integrated farming Songhai Centre in Benin IPM: In agriculture, integrated pest management (IPM) is a pest control strategy that uses a variety of complementary strategies including: mechanical devices, physical devices, genetic, biological, cultural management, and chemical management. These methods are done in three stages: prevention, observation, and intervention. It is an ecological approach with a main goal of significantly reducing or eliminating the use of pesticides while at the same time managing pest populations at an acceptable level.[1] For their leadership in developing and spreading IPM worldwide, Dr. Perry Adkisson and Dr. Ray F. Smith received the 1997 World Food Prize. History of IPM Shortly after World War II, when synthetic insecticides became widely available, entomologists in California developed the concept of supervised insect control. Around the same time, entomologists in cotton-belt states such as Arkansas were advocating a similar approach. Under this scheme, insect control was supervised by qualified entomologists, and insecticide applications were based on conclusions reached from periodic monitoring of pest and natural-enemy populations. This was viewed as an alternative to calendar-based insecticide programs. Supervised control was based on a sound knowledge of the ecology and analysis of projected trends in pest and natural-enemy populations. Supervised control formed much of the conceptual basis for the integrated control that University of California entomologists articulated in the 1950s. Integrated control sought to identify the best mix of chemical and biological controls for a given insect pest. Chemical insecticides were to be used in manner least disruptive to biological control. The term integrated was thus synonymous with compatible. Chemical controls were to be applied only after regular monitoring indicated that a pest population had reached a level (the economic threshold) that required treatment to prevent the population from reaching a level (the economic injury level) at which economic losses would exceed the cost of the artificial control measures. IPM extended the concept of integrated control to all classes of pests and was expanded to include tactics other than just chemical and biological controls. Artificial controls such as pesticides were to be applied as in integrated control, but these now had to be compatible with control tactics for all classes of pests. Other tactics, such as host-plant resistance and cultural manipulations, became part of the IPM arsenal. IPM added the multidisciplinary element, involving entomologists, plant pathologists, nematologists, and weed scientists. In the United States, IPM was formulated into national policy in February 1972 when President Nixon directed federal agencies to take steps to advance the concept and application of IPM in all relevant sectors. In 1979, President Carter established an interagency IPM Coordinating Committee to ensure development and implementation of IPM practices. (references: The History of IPM, BioControl Reference Center. [1] How IPM works An IPM regime can be quite simple or sophisticated. Historically, the main focus of IPM programs was on agricultural insect pests.[2] Although originally developed for agricultural pest management, IPM programs are now developed to encompass diseases, weeds, and other pests that interfere with the management objectives of sites such as residential and commercial structures, lawn and turf areas, and home and community gardens. An IPM system is designed around six basic components: The US Environmental Protection Agency has a useful set of IPM principles. [2] 1. Acceptable pest levels: The emphasis is on control, not eradication. IPM holds that wiping out an entire pest population is often impossible, and the attempt can be more costly, environmentally unsafe, and frequently unachievable. IPM programs first work to establish acceptable pest levels, called action thresholds, and apply controls if those thresholds are crossed. These thresholds are pest and site specific, meaning that it may be acceptable at one site to have a weed such as white clover, but at another site it may not be acceptable. This stops the pest gaining resistance to chemicals produced by the plant or applied to the crops. If many of the pests are killed then any that have resistance to the chemical will rapidly reproduce forming a resistant population. By not killing all the pests there are some un-resistant pests left that will dilute any resistant genes that appear. 2. Preventive cultural practices: Selecting varieties best for local growing conditions, and maintaining healthy crops, is the first line of defense, together with plant quarantine and cultural techniques such as crop sanitation (e.g. removal of diseased plants to prevent spread of infection). 3. Monitoring: Regular observation is the cornerstone of IPM. Observation is broken into two steps, first; inspection and second; identification.[3] Visual inspection, insect and spore traps, and other measurement methods and monitoring tools are used to monitor pest levels. Accurate pest identification is critical to a successful IPM program. Record-keeping is essential, as is a thorough knowledge of the behavior and reproductive cycles of target pests. Since insects are cold-blooded, their physical development is dependent on the temperature of their environment. Many insects have had their development cycles modeled in terms of degree days. Monitor the degree days of an environment to determine when is the optimal time for a specific insects outbreak. 4. Mechanical controls: Should a pest reach an unacceptable level, mechanical methods are the first options to consider. They include simple hand-picking, erecting insect barriers, using traps, vacuuming, and tillage to disrupt breeding. 5. Biological controls: Natural biological processes and materials can provide control, with minimal environmental impact, and often at low cost. The main focus here is on promoting beneficial insects that eat target pests. Biological insecticides, derived from naturally occurring microorganisms (e.g.: Bt, entomopathogenic fungi and entomopathogenic nematodes), also fit in this category. 6. Chemical controls: Synthetic pesticides are generally only used as required and often only at specific times in a pests life cycle. Many of the newer pesticide groups are derived from plants or naturally occurring substances (e.g.: nicotine, pyrethrum and insect juvenile hormone analogues), and further biology-based or ecological techniques are under evaluation. IPM is applicable to all types of agriculture and sites such as residential and commercial structures, lawn and turf areas, and home and community gardens. Reliance on knowledge, experience, observation, and integration of multiple techniques makes IPM a perfect fit for organic farming (the synthetic chemical option is simply not considered). For large-scale, chemical-based farms, IPM can reduce human and environmental exposure to hazardous chemicals, and potentially lower overall costs of pesticide application material and labor. 1. Proper identification of pest What is it? Cases of mistaken identity may result in ineffective actions. If plant damage due to over-watering are mistaken for a fungal infection, a spray may be used needlessly and the plant still dies. 2. Learn pest and host life cycle and biology. At the time you see a pest, it may be too late to do much about it except maybe spray with a pesticide. Often, there is another stage of the life cycle that is susceptible to preventative actions. For example, weeds reproducing from last years seed can be prevented with mulches. Also, learning what a pest needs to survive allows you to remove these. 3. Monitor or sample environment for pest population How many are here? Preventative actions must be taken at the correct time if they are to be effective. For this reason, once you have correctly identified the pest, you begin monitoring BEFORE it becomes a problem. For example, in school cafeterias where roaches may be expected to appear, sticky traps are set out before school starts. Traps are checked at regular intervals so you can see them right away and do something before they get out of hand. Some of the things you might want to monitor about pest populations include: Is the pest present/absent? What is the distribution all over or only in certain spots? Is the pest population increasing or decreasing? 4. Establish action threshold (economic, health or aesthetic) How many are too many? In some cases, a certain number of pests can be tolerated. Soybeans are quite tolerant of defoliation, so if you have only a few caterpillars in the field and their population is not increasing dramatically, there is no need to do anything. Conversely, there is a point at which you MUST do something. For the farmer, that point is the one at which the cost of damage by the pest is MORE than the cost of control. This is an economic threshold. Tolerance of pests varies also by whether or not they are a health hazard (low tolerance) or merely a cosmetic damage (high tolerance in a non-commercial situation). Personal tolerances also vary many people dislike any insect; some people cannot tolerate dandelions in their yards. Different sites may also have varying requirements based on specific areas. White clover may be perfectly acceptable on the sides of a tee box on a golf course, but unacceptable in th e fairway where it could cause confusion in the field of play.[4] 5. Choose an appropriate combination of management tactics For any pest situation, there will be several options to consider. Options include, mechanical or physical control, cultural controls, biological controls and chemical controls. Mechanical or physical controls include picking pests off plants, or using netting or other material to exclude pests such as birds from grapes or rodents from structures. Cultural controls include keeping an area free of conducive conditions by removing or storing waste properly, removing diseased areas of plants properly. Biological controls can be support either through conservation of natural predators or augmentation of natural predators[5]. Augmentative control includes the introduction of naturally occurring predators at either an inundative or inoculative level[6]. An inundative release would be one that seeks to inundate a site with a pests predator to impact the pest population[7][8]. An inoculative release would be a smaller number of pest predators to supplement the natural population and provide ongoing control.[9] Chemical controls would include horticultural oils or the application of pesticides such as insecticides and herbicides. A Green Pest Management IPM program would use pesticides derived from plants, such as botanicals, or other naturally occurring materials. 6. Evaluate results How did it work? Evaluation is often one of the most important steps.[10] This is the process to review an IPM program and the results it generated. Asking the following questions is useful: Did your actions have the desired effect? Was the pest prevented or managed to your satisfaction? Was the method itself satisfactory? Were there any unintended side effects? What will you do in the future for this pest situation? Understanding the effectiveness of the IPM program allows the site manager to make modifications to the IPM plan prior to pests reaching the action threshold and requiring action again. Notes 1. ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency, Pesticides and Food: What Integrated Pest Management Means. 2. ^ http://www.umass.edu/umext/ipm/publications/guidelines/index.html. 3. ^ Bennett, Et Al., Trumans Scientific Guide to Pest Management Operations, 6th edition, page 10, Purdue University/Questex Press, 2005. 4. ^ Purdue University Turf Pest Management Correspondence Course, Introduction, 2006 5. ^ http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/IPM/biocontrol/ 6. ^ http://www.hort.uconn.edu/ipm/veg/htms/ecbtrich.htm 7. ^ http://pinellas.ifas.ufl.edu/green_pros/ipm_basics.shtml 8. ^ http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/IPM/biocontrol/Inundative_release.htm 9. ^ http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/IPM/biocontrol/Inoculative_release_.htm 10. ^ Bennett, Et Al., Trumans Scientific Guide to Pest Management Operations, 6th edition, page 12, Purdue University/Questex Press, 2005. References * Pests of Landscape Trees and Shrubs: An Integrated Pest Management Guide. Steve H. Dreistadt, Mary Louise Flint, et al., ANR Publications, University of California, Oakland, California, 1994. 328pp, paper, photos, reference tables, diagrams. * Bennett, Gary W., Ph.d., Owens, John M., Ph.d., Corrigan, Robert M, Ph.d. Trumans Scientific Guide to Pest Management Operations, 6th Edition, pages 10, 11, 12, Purdue University, Questex, 2005. * Jahn, GC, PG Cox., E Rubia-Sanchez, and M Cohen 2001. The quest for connections: developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management. pp. 413-430, In S. Peng and B. Hardy [eds.] â€Å"Rice Research for Food Security and Poverty Alleviation.† Proceeding the International Rice Research Conference, 31 March 3 April 2000, Los Baà ±os, Philippines. Los Baà ±os (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. 692 p. * Jahn, GC, B. Khiev, C Pol, N. Chhorn and V Preap 2001. Sustainable pest management for rice in Cambodia. In P. Cox and R Chhay [eds.] â€Å"The Impact of Agricultural Research for Development in Southeast Asia† Proceedings of an International Conference held at the Cambodian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 24-26 Oct. 2000, Phnom Penh (Cambodia): CARDI. * Jahn, GC, JA Litsinger, Y Chen and A Barrion. 2007. Integrated Pest Management of Rice: Ecological Concepts. In Ecologically Based Integrated Pest Management (eds. O. Koul and G.W. Cuperus). CAB International Pp. 315-366. * Kogan, M 1998. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT:Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Developments, Annual Review of Entomology Vol. 43: 243-270 (Volume publication date January 1998) (doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.243) * Nonveiller, Guido 1984. Catalogue commentà © et illustrà © des insectes du Cameroun dintà ©rà ªt agricole: (apparitions, rà ©partition, importance) / University of Belgrade/Institut pour la protection des plantes * US Environmental Protection Ag

Effects of trade barriers

Effects of trade barriers Chapter 1 Introduction Trade is an exchange of services and goods for other services and goods or for money, Trade ( 2010). The paper discusses about the effects of trade barriers on international trade, i.e. to identify one or more variables (inflation, transportation cost, tariff, remittances, population, GDP deflator and exchange rate) in the study that effect international trade the most. A trade barrier is a general term that describes any government policy or regulation that restricts international trade (Trade barrier, 2010). The problem discussed is the effect of trade barriers on international trade. In order to address the problem, two hypotheses have been developed and tested. Each hypothesis explains the effect of variables as barrier to international trade. Secondary data of three years comprised on year 2005-2007, collected from the source World Trade Organization (WTO). The statistical tool applied to test the hypothesis is multi-variate regression model as there are more than one independent variable and one dependent variable. The independent variables identified in this paper are (Inflation, Exchange Rate, Remittances, GDP, Tariff, Population and Transportation Cost) the dependent variable are (Imports and Exports). The statistical result of the hypothesis testing can be seen in the following chapters. Inflation Generally inflation is defined as a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services over time, where as most of the economist define inflation as a rise in the prices of some specific set of goods or services, it is important to understand that the rise in prices is for specific set of goods and services and it should be constant, as well as a rise in price of one good or service as compared to other does not mean an increase in inflation it should be increased for every product or service. Inflation is measured as the percentage rate of change of a price index (Haq Hussain, 2008). Measures of Inflation There are many measures of inflation each for different sector, Consumer Price Indices (CPI) CPI measures the price of goods and services purchased by a consumer (Haq Hussain, 2008). Cost-of-Living Indices (COLI) Are indices similar to the CPI which is often used to adjust fixed and contractual incomes (Haq Hussain, 2008). Producer Price Indices (PPIs) measures the prices acknowledged by producers. This differs from the CPI in that price subsidization, income, and taxes may cause the amount acknowledged by the producer to differ from what the buyer paid. Producer price inflation measures the pressure being put on producers by the costs of their raw materials. This could be passed on as consumer inflation, or it could be absorbed by profits, or offset by increasing productivity (Haq Hussain, 2008). Commodity Price Indices (CPI) measures the price of a selection of commodities. In the present commodity price indices are weighted by the relative importance of the components to the all in cost of an employee (Haq Hussain, 2008). GDP Deflator GDP deflator is a measure of the price of all the goods and services included in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Haq Hussain, 2008). Capital Goods Price Index So far (CGPI) has not been established, where as several economists have recently pointed out the necessity of measuring capital goods inflation (inflation in the price of stocks, real estate, and other assets) separately. Indeed a given increase in the supply of money can lead to a rise in inflation (consumption goods inflation) and or to a rise in capital goods price inflation. The growth in money supply has remained fairly constant through since the 1970s however consumption goods price inflation has been reduced because most of the inflation has happened in the capital goods prices, Haq Hussain (2008), where as there are two common known measures widely reported in many countries, i.e. CPI and GDP Deflator. The above chart shows the trade of world developed countries in terms of exports and imports, the amount is in US billion dollars, the next chart is of inflation of the developed countries of the world, the purpose is to compare and analyze the countries inflation rate and trade in order to examine the impact caused by inflation on countries trade. As it can be seen that each country has different impact of inflation on its imports and exports, for instance Australia inflation rate was 2.30% in year 2007 where as its exports were 142 billion dollars and its imports were 160 billion dollars, similarly for Canada its inflation rate was 2.10% and its exports were 431.1 billion dollars and its imports were 386.4 billion dollars, therefore if a comparison is made between these countries it can be seen that every country has a different impact of inflation on its trade, hence it can be said that the reason for this difference of change is the size of countrys economic and financial structure. Tariff A tariff is a tax forced on an imported or exported commodities. In general dialect, however, it has come to mean import duties charged at the time goods are imported (Parkin, 1996). According to Japans customs tariff law a tariff a tax based on the standard of assessment of prices or volume of imported goods (Tariff, 2010). Functions of Tariff There are three major functions of tariffs: To serve as a basis of income; To protect domestic industries; and To remedy trade distortions (corrective function) (Functions of Tariff, 2010). The Income Function The income function simply means that the income from tariffs provides governments with a source of tax revenue. In the past, the income function was indeed a major reason for applying tariffs, for instance Japan generates about 845 billion yen in tariff revenue per year, which represents approximately 1.9 percent of total tax revenue (Meti, 2010). Protection of Domestic Industries Tariffs are also used as a policy tool to protect domestic industries from competition of importing goods, as well as tariffs are also used as a source of protection of market access from foreign exporters (Meti, 2010). Remedy to Trade Distortions Corrective tariffs are used as a remedy for trade distortions caused by companies to injure domestic industry, for instance anti-dumping agreement is used to impose duties on companies exporting goods that are specifically banned and cause damage to domestic industry of importing country (Meti, 2010). Remittance Remittance can be defined as sums of money that a migrant worker sends back to his or her country of origin (Wimaladharma, Pearce Stanton, 2004). Remittance plays a vital source of income for developing country economies, as well as millions of individual households, predominantly poor women and their children. Unlike aid or concealed investment flows, remittance reaches the poor directly, and the poor decide how the money is spent. Importantly, remittance services also offer a means for monetary institutions to increase their outreach and significance to poor clients (Wimaladharma, Pearce Stanton, 2004). For instance the largest remitting countries in terms of volume are the United States with remittances amounting to $28.4 billion, Saudi Arabia with remittances amounting to $15.1 billion and Germany with remittances amounting to $8.2 billion (Wimaladharma, Pearce Stanton, 2004). In the study, Ratha (2003), it was found that more than three-quarters of remittances go to lower mid-income and low income developing countries. India receives the largest volume of remittance mounting to $10 billion, then Mexico with $9.9 billion, followed by the Philippines with $6.4 billion (Wimaladharma, Pearce Stanton, 2004). Exchange Rate The price of one countrys currency expressed in another countrys currency. In other words, the rate at which one currency can be exchanged for another. For instance, the higher the exchange rate for one euro in terms of oneyen,the lower the relative value of the yen (Investopedia , 2010). Exchange Rate and Trade Exchange rate is one of the important factors in an open economy since it affects so many business, investment and strategic decisions. Various empirical studies have been conducted to assess the influence of exchange rate on trade balance, with the objective of providing valuable inputs to policy makers on the usefulness of exchange rate policy such as devaluation-based alteration policies (effected through nominal exchange rate) to balance a countrys foreign trade for instance, Greenwood (1984), Himarios (1989), Rose Yellen (1989) provided the evidence of relationship between exchange rate and trade balance. In a study, Oskooee (2001) stated that appreciation of exchange rate directly affects a country trade as it can be used as an effort to increase international competitiveness and help to improve its trade balance. On the other hand it was also reported in the study that depreciation of exchange rate increases exports by making exports fairly cheaper, and daunt imports by making imports fairly more expensive, thus improving trade balance(Liew, Lim, Hussain, 2000). Japan and ASEAN A study conducted using trade balance data from year 1986 to 1999 between Japan and 5 ASEAN countries to examine the impact of exchange rate on countries trade balance. It was found in the study that the role of exchange rate changes in initiating changes in the trade balances has been overstated. It is widely expected that the decrease of ASEAN-5 exchange rates with respect to Japanese yen would improve these economies trade balances with Japan during the sample period of study (Liew, Lim, Hussain, 2000). Gross Domestic Product Gross domestic product is the value of collective or total production of goods and services in a country during a given time period (Parkins, 1996). Measures of GDP There are two common measures of GDP namely: Expenditure Approach. Factor Income Approach. Expenditure Approach In expenditure approach the GDP is measured by adding consumption expenditure, investment, government purchase of goods and services and net exports (Parkins, 1996). Factor Income Approach In factor income approach the GDP is measured by adding all the incomes paid by the firms to household for the services of factor of production, for example compensation of employees, net interest, rental income, and profits paid for entrepreneurship (Parkins, 1996). Chapter 2 Literature Review Transportation Cost Europe A comparative study, Conlon (1981), was conducted in 1981 between Australia and Canada to investigate the role of transportation cost as a trade barrier in trade flow of both the countries. It was found in the study that in Australia nominal transport costs contribute over 40 per cent of the trade barrier in its trade flow, where as in Canada transport costs provide over 17 per cent of the total barriers. In the study by, Casas choi (1985), it was found that transportation cost being the trade barrier has two affects on the country economy 1) implicit tariff effect, 2) resource cost effect. The Implicit Cost Effect In the implicit cost effect, Casas choi (1985) an increase in transportation costs affects the trade flows by increasing the domestic comparative price of the imported goods. Resource Cost Effect In the resource cost effect, Casas choi (1985) an increase in transportation cost, shifts productive resources from traded goods to the transport sector, i.e. in case of increase in transportation cost, the resources used to produce goods domestically were allocated for payments of transportation bills due to which production of domestic goods suffered. United Kingdom Similarly an empirical study, Binkley Harrer (1981), conducted in the United Kingdom to examine the role of transportation cost as trade barrier, it was found that Transportation costs between countries pose a formidable barrier to trade, similar to other trade barriers such as tariffs. This study was further supported by the study of Sampson and Yeats in which it was concluded that transport costs to be a more significant trade barrier for United Kingdom exports than tariffs, (Sampson Yeats: Binkley: 1978 Harrer: 1981). Similarly another study conducted in the United Kingdom also concluded that transportation cost is more effective trade barrier as compared to tariffs (Sampson yeats, 1978: Binkley Harrer: 1981). United States A similar study by, Finger Yeats (1976), conducted in the United States gave the similar conclusion that that effective shield through international transportation costs is at least as high as that due to tariffs, Geraci Prewo (1977). In a study it was concluded by the author that progressive reduction in the transportation cost resulted in the growth of trade between United States and Europe, Shiue (2002). Similarly another study conducted in the United States also concluded that transportation cost is more effective trade barrier. Africa A study conducted in Africa to examine the effect of transportation cost on African trade, the results indicated that there is a very little trade flow within the Africa and the rest of the world, due to strict trade policies, for example according to, Collier (1995), Collier Gunning (1999), Limà £o and Venables (2001), There is a common belief that Africa trades too little both with itself and with the rest of the world. The poor performance is typically attributed to protectionist trade policies and high transport costs. Similarly another study concluded that the reason behind the low trade is the poor infrastructure and inappropriate transport policies (Amjadi Yeats 1995: Limà £o Venables, 2001). Australia A study conducted in Australia, Sampson Yeats (1977) to identify the trade barriers causing decline in Australian exports, it was found in the study that transportation cost is a major contributor to decline in export as compared to tariffs, in other words it can be said that 66 percent of the total Australian exports are decline due to transportation cost. China A study conducted in china by studying various trends in trade barriers, the purpose of the study was to identify trade barriers affecting Chinese exports, and it was found in the study that transportation cost is a major trade barrier as compared to tariffs and local markups (Li, 2007). Tanzania An empirical study, Kweka (2001) conducted for developing countries such as Tanzania it was found in the study that transportation cost as a trade barrier have two impacts on the economy: It reduces the export competitiveness, Kweka (2001), since the cost incurred by the producer and cost paid by the buyer is widens by the high transportation cost. In other words it can be said that due to the increase in transportation cost most of the export orders to developing countries such as Tanzania are declined. The second impact, Kweka (2001) on the economy of developing countries is a positive impact, due to high transportation cost the trade of locally produced goods increases, this is due to the fact that the gap between the prices of locally produce goods and imported goods become so wide that it becomes nearly impossible for the people of importing country to buy imported goods as a result 95 percent of the purchases are made off locally produce goods. Ultimately leading a growth in the overall economy. Tariff There are number of studies conducted to examine the impact of tariff as a trade barrier, for instance in a study it has been found that tariff and capital controls lead to trade deformation. Where as on the other hand it has also been that found tariff barriers in the importing countries tend to have a negative, though insignificant, effect on exports of countries (T. Tamirisa, 1999). Another study examining the impact of tariff as barrier on trade found that tariff has a significant negative effect on mutual exports, in part because of significant trade cost, where as in presence of tariff barrier the impact on imports is comparatively weak (T. Tamirisa, 1999). One more study examining the impact of tariff as a barrier in trade found that tariff is one of the significant factor of mutual trade in-between countries, as compared to country size wealth, exchange and capital controls, while tariff rate significantly reduce export of developing and transition economy (T. Tamirisa, 1999). A study conducted to examine the relationship between trade barriers and trade flow. The study identified number of barriers such as exchange control, tariff, NTBs, it has been found that tariff is one of the major trade barrier as compared to exchange control and NTBs. The study also concluded that tariff with other barriers of trade tend to reduce the volume of trade, as well as tariff alone have a depressing impact on the mutual trade of countries (Lee Swagel, 1997). The study also provided the evidence that country having bi-lateral trade is affected by tariff charges as a result it does not only have a strong negative effect imports but it acts as a substantial barrier to export also. Final study concluded that tariff act as a barrier to both imports and exports of a country (Lee Swagel, 1997). Another study conducted in year 1993 by lee to examine the distortion caused by tariff in international trade found that tariffs charges lower the long-run growth rates more significantly in a country that needs to import more under a free trade regime. As well as government intervention in terms of imposing a tariff on the imports of foreign goods leads to the increase in price paid by the domestic purchaser i.e. (1 + 7) times the price received by foreign exporters (lee, 1993). Therefore it can be said that, tariff has two effects on the economy, namely the deformation of resource distribution and the transfer of income, distortion effect of tariffs always decrease the steady-state levels of the capital stock, output, and consumption. Where as transfer of income help to retain the income earned through exports within the country, in presence of tariff where as in absence of tariff same income earned through export is used to settle import bills. On the other hand the study also concluded that when the tariff rates are high, the productivity of public input diminishes; thus, higher tariffs always lead to lower growth rates (lee, 1993). Empirical studies have found that tariff liberalization would transfer trade from the rich to the poor and from the local to the global. It has been estimated that the elimination of tariffs would create more trade for poor countries than for richer countries. They also imply that tariff elimination would divert trade away from continental preferential trading areas (lai zhu, 2004). The study provided the evidence that tariffs, and distance-related barriers and production costs are important factors affecting bilateral trade flow, where as tariff being the major element affecting the trade flow (lai zhu, 2004). For instance the trade among OECD countries is free form tariff charges where as non OECD countries have the highest tariff charges. As a result, the impact of tariffs on trade within OECD countries is likely less than 3.7% whereas the impact of tariffs on trade among non-OECD countries likely exceeds 3.7% (lai zhu, 2004). Population There are number of studies conducted to examine the impact of population on trade. These studies discussed various questions regarding the benefits of openness of trade between countries for instance, who gains from an opening of the borders between two neighboring countries? Will any country lose as borders are opened? Is it the small country or the large country that benefits most? (Shachmurove Spiegel, 2004) It is general perception that countries with large populations having no trade tend to have larger profits at the expense of consumers i.e. since there is no foreign producer in the country all the profits earned through production is solely taken by the country it self in simple words it can be said monopoly. Where as if the same country having trade with other countries or foreign producers are trading in the country tends to reduce its profits, as part of the profit is taken by foreign exporter. On the other hand keeping the same scenario for a country with small population tend to have lower profits in the absence of trade and it will further see a decline in its profits with the presence of foreign producer (Shachmurove Spiegel, 2004). There are number of studies conducted that provided the evidence that countries having population aging problems have direct impact on the country trade, for instance a study by, Kenc Sayan (2001), showed that changes in age composition of population are likely to affect saving and expenditure patterns, the resulting changes in composition of demand are expected to affect comparative prices between expenditure and investment goods. On the supply side, the decline in labor supply and the slow down in capital formation associated with population aging had cause changes in capital-labor ratios. As a result it alters relative factor prices and leads to second-round effects on resource allocation. Furthermore, since the changes in the relative capital intensities across traded and non-traded sectors affect real exchange rates and trade patterns, they are expected to create additional effects on partner country economies as well (Sayan Uyar, 2002). On the other hand if the countries experiencing population aging are large in the international trade, where as their partners are small and have not yet faced a population aging problem themselves. In other words, commodities and capital traded at the terms set by large economies may make these small countries vulnerable to the effects of population aging even if they have relatively young populations (Sayan Uyar, 2002). Gross Domestic Product (GDP) There are number of studies conducted to examine the impact of gross domestic product (GDP) on trade (imports exports) of a country, for instance a study conducted using gravity equation to examine the impact of gdp on exports of a country, the study classified the sample into three categories a) homogeneous goods, b) differentiated goods, and c) an in-between category (Feenstra, Markusen Rose, 2001). It found in the study that if a trade of one country with another move from homogeneous goods to differentiated goods, then the stretch of exports with respect to GDP rises considerably (Feenstra, Markusen Rose, 2001). The finding of the study is empirically strong and significant both economically and statistically, as well as the study also stated that the GDP of the exporting country is found to be a powerful illustrative variable in the comparative strength of bilateral trade relations (Feenstra, Markusen Rose, 2001). Another study conducted in India to examine the impact of various economic variables such as (distance, GDP, population, tariff, and exchange rate) on Indian trade flows. Previous studies have also been conducted using gravity model to examine the impact of economic variables on trade flows, it was reported in the previous studies that distance has a negative and significant impact on trade where as GDP and population have a positive and significant impact on trade flows (Srinivasan Archana, 2008). Likewise the previous studies, the study conducted in India reported the similar findings, i.e. larger distance reduces mutual trade and a larger GDP and population of the trading countries increase trade. It was also found in the study that size of the economy is an important influential factor explaining the inflow and outflow of goods and services. A study similar to previous studies was conducted to examine the impact of gdp on trade flows of a country. The study supported the findings of the previous studies that tariff barrier of importing country have a negative and significant impact on exporting countries, where as the study also reported that the larger gdp and population have a positive impact on bilateral exports of countries (Tamirisa, 1999). A study conducted by, Ghartey (1993), using economic data of three countries (United States, Japan and Taiwan) to examine the impact of gdp of each country on its trade flows, it was found in the study that United states GDP promoted its exports, where as for Japan and Taiwan the impact was opposite (Chen, 2009). Similarly another study conducted by, Jung Marshall (1985), to examine the relationship between GDP and exports, the study used thirty one years of GDP and exports data from year 1950 to year 1981 for 37 developing countries, it was found in the study that there is no relationship between GDP and exports of 37 developing countries except Israel (Chen, 2009). China A study conducted in china by, Shen (1999) to examine the relationship between exports and GDP, the study used twenty one years of exports and GDP data from year 1977 to year 1998, the study found that there is a short term relationship between the Chinese GDP and exports, where there is no long term relationship between the two variables (Chen, 2009). Pakistan A study conducted in Pakistan to examine the impact of GDP on Pakistan trade flows, it was found in the study that an increase in GDP i.e. increase in domestic income results in increase in imports, for instance a one-percent increase in Pakistan GDP increases imports from US and Japan by an equivalent percent. Where as if compared to UK and Germany the trade flow is positive and small but not significant (Akhtar Malik, 2000). Inflation What exactly is inflation? A persistent increase in the level of consumer prices or a persistent decline in the purchasing power of money, caused by an increase in available currency and credit beyond the proportion of available goods and services. Inflation occurs when the price level rises from one period to the next (Robinson, 2007). The Impact of Inflation on International Trade A study conducted in U.S, Robinson (2007) to investigate the impact of inflation on international trade and small business. It was found that inflation creates uncertainty that discourages productive activity, savings and investing and ultimately reduces the competitiveness of a country in international trade. It was also found that if inflation is not offset by a nation with a less valuable currency, the U.S.s exports become more expensive and less attractive. This makes other countries imports more attractive. As a result this forms an economy of unbalanced trade with more reduced U.S. economy and international trade (Robinson, 2007). Inflation has many disadvantages; it creates uncertainty, in that people do not know what the money they earn today buy tomorrow. This uncertainty discourages productive activity, saving and investing. Inflation reduces the competitiveness of the country in international trade. If inflation is not offset by a nation with a less valuable currency, the U.S.s exports become more expensive and less attractive. This makes other countries imports more attractive. This forms an economy of unbalanced trade which results in a much more reduced U.S. economy (Robinson, 2007). Inflation and Trade A study conducted, Fitoussi (2007), to investigate the impact of inflation on trade found that in the last 15 years or so, disinflation and the increase of world trade seem to have gone hand in hand. It was found that in the past three decades a downward trend in inflation caused an inward trend in world trade (Fitoussi, 2007). The first fact that can be observed is that the past three decades were characterized both by an upward trend in world trade (measured as exports over GDP) and a downward trend in inflation (measured as yearly change in CPI) (Fitoussi, 2007). Remittances In general remittances are defined as a portion of the earnings a migrant sends to relatives back home, IMF (2010). It has been estimated that workers migrated to different countries send home between US$ 2000 to US$ 5000 a year, i.e. in terms of percentage around 20% to 30% of their income. It has been found in the previous researches that poor countries receive larger amount of remittances as compared to high income countries for instance In 2007, the top three recipients of remittances India, China, and Mexico-each received over $25 billion. But smaller and poorer countries tend to receive relatively larger remittances when the size of the economy is taken into account. Expressing remittances as a share of GDP, the top recipients were Tajikistan (36 percent), Moldova (36 percent), Tonga (32 percent) and Kyrgyz Republic (27percent). Remittances as a share of GDP amounted to 3.6 percent of GDP in low-income countries in 2006 compared to 1.7 percent in middle-income countries (Ratha Mohapatra, 2007). Numbers of studies have been conducted to examine the impact of remittances on the trade of a country; these studies provided a mix of evidence regarding the impact of remittances on countries trade, for instance some studies provided the evidence that remittances can improve a countrys creditworthiness and thereby enhance its access to international capital markets for financing infrastructure and other development projects, in other words it can be said that increase in inflow of remittances increase the foreign reserves of a country, hence it enhances the ability of a country to meet its foreign trade obligations (paying of import bills). This enhancement of country ability indicates a sign of increase in its economic activity as a result it attracts foreign investors and foreign export orders (Ratha Mohapatra, 2007). For instance the ratio of debt to exports of goods and services, a key indebtedness indicator, would increase significantly if remittances were excluded from the denominator. Exchange Rate Turkey A study conducted, Vergil (2001), to investigate the impact of exchange rate volatility on Turkish trade flows comprising on 10 years data from year 1990 to year 2000. It was found in the study that exchange rate volatility has a negative impact on Turkish trade flows. Africa A study conducted to analyze the impact of exchange rate volatility on African countries trade flows. The study used 33 sub-Saharan African countries exchange rate macro-economic performance indicators data. It was found in the study that exchange rates contributed a great deal towards Africas poor economic performance, Ghura Grennes (1993), i.e. overvaluation in exchange rate resulted in lower level of exports, lower level of real GDP per Capita and lower level of Savings (Shatz Tarr: 1990). G-7 Countries A study conducted by international monetary fund to investigate the impact of exchange fluctuation on world trade, in the study the G-7 countries trade was taken as world trade. The purpose of the study was to compare the results of IMF 1984 study a

Antigone: A Woman Who Believes In The Power Of Women :: essays research papers

A Woman Who Believes In The Power of Women Scene I: The Trial Introduction At the law firm of Theban Associates, one of the lead partners is Antigone, she is a hard worker whose intentions usually consist of reaching a compromise between the government and her client. As a defense attorney, her line of work is quite demanding and difficult since she is a female working in a male dominated world. While being placed in this position, Antigone is able to appreciate how difficult things are for a woman in society, even in today's world. She realizes that regardless of the anti-gender bias laws that have been passed, society still views women as baby-machines and they are constantly degraded and viewed as inferior to man. Antigone's new client, Medea, is responsible for the brutal murder of her two children and of her husband's new bride to be. Although Antigone disagrees with Medea's actions, she takes the case because she feels that it is a way to show the world that even today, in the new millennium, women's actions are still measured harsher than those of men. In other words, Medea claims that she took drastic measures in order to retaliate against her husband for leaving her alone in the world, but it was the only way that she could truly finish him and make everyone think about they way the world is run today. When the case is taken to trial Antigone takes an excessive amount of criticism and beating from her friends and colleagues as well as the media. She is said to be inhuman and her prerogative to why she has chosen to defend this demand woman, Medea is questioned. In addition, her place in society as a prominent "female" attorney is disregarded because her moral and ethical values are questioned. Yet, despite these terrible things, Antigone holds her head up high and walks into the courtroom determined to defend her client as best she could. In this courtroom it is inexplicable to anyone how somebody could murder her own children to teach her husband a lesson, every individual has forgotten their oath and placed their own personal opinion into their work, including Judge Good. Before starting, Antigone turns to the Chorus for moral support. In reply they tell her to do her job as she has in the past, and to remember what is the true reason why she has decided to take this case.

Nature of the Mind Essay -- Poetry

William Blake, a poet that strongly believed in the power of mind, once wrote, "if we see with imagination, we see all things in the infinite." The Romantic poets use their imagination when gazing at nature, and therefore see and feel the infinite through their poetry. William Wordsworth expresses the serene beauty that nature possesses and its calming effects on the mind. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, one of the poetic geniuses of the age, uses nature and his imagination to create surreal atmospheres. Another Romantic poet, by the name of Percy Bysshe Shelley, shows great longing for the freedom that nature possesses and the freeing effect it has on him. These poets of the Romantic period look at nature from a higher consciousness called the imagination. William Wordsworth, through many of his poems, expresses the serene beauty contained in nature and its tranquilizing effects on human thoughts. In "Lines Composed a Few Miles from Tintern Abbey", the speaker looks "on nature...to chasten and subdue...the mind" and bring peace to his thoughts. Looking deeply into nature brings the feelings of sublime contentment and new feelings of inspiration that one cannot find in any alternate surrounding. In Wordsworth's "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud," the speaker, when "in vacant or in pensive mood," recalls a memory of a past picturesque outdoor scene that "is the bliss of [his] solitude." His mind's pencil edges a lasting portrait of a scene in nature and the emotions of its beauty in the speaker's mind. The "dancing daffodils" will stay with the speaker even when the original drawing has faded. Another poem, "Composed upon Westminster Bridge," expresses the lulling atmosphere of the early morning and its encompassing calm a... ...s are "profuse strains of unpremeditated art," singing exactly what it feels, without restraint. Percy Shelley imagines these feelings of freedom and artless beauty in nature's creations that without imagination would never be conceived. Through poetry, the Romantics, Wordsworth, Coleridge and Shelley, make many connections between the human mind and its natural surroundings by way of imagination. William Wordsworth emphasizes nature's soothing powers on the mind and its short term and long term effects. Shelley, on the other hand, expresses the boundless life of nature and its ability of uninhibited expression. Samuel Coleridge, the true believer in the mind's versatility, focuses on the flexibility of one's imagination in the presence of nature. Because of these poets and their poetry, the rest of the world is tempted to take a step into the imagination. Nature of the Mind Essay -- Poetry William Blake, a poet that strongly believed in the power of mind, once wrote, "if we see with imagination, we see all things in the infinite." The Romantic poets use their imagination when gazing at nature, and therefore see and feel the infinite through their poetry. William Wordsworth expresses the serene beauty that nature possesses and its calming effects on the mind. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, one of the poetic geniuses of the age, uses nature and his imagination to create surreal atmospheres. Another Romantic poet, by the name of Percy Bysshe Shelley, shows great longing for the freedom that nature possesses and the freeing effect it has on him. These poets of the Romantic period look at nature from a higher consciousness called the imagination. William Wordsworth, through many of his poems, expresses the serene beauty contained in nature and its tranquilizing effects on human thoughts. In "Lines Composed a Few Miles from Tintern Abbey", the speaker looks "on nature...to chasten and subdue...the mind" and bring peace to his thoughts. Looking deeply into nature brings the feelings of sublime contentment and new feelings of inspiration that one cannot find in any alternate surrounding. In Wordsworth's "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud," the speaker, when "in vacant or in pensive mood," recalls a memory of a past picturesque outdoor scene that "is the bliss of [his] solitude." His mind's pencil edges a lasting portrait of a scene in nature and the emotions of its beauty in the speaker's mind. The "dancing daffodils" will stay with the speaker even when the original drawing has faded. Another poem, "Composed upon Westminster Bridge," expresses the lulling atmosphere of the early morning and its encompassing calm a... ...s are "profuse strains of unpremeditated art," singing exactly what it feels, without restraint. Percy Shelley imagines these feelings of freedom and artless beauty in nature's creations that without imagination would never be conceived. Through poetry, the Romantics, Wordsworth, Coleridge and Shelley, make many connections between the human mind and its natural surroundings by way of imagination. William Wordsworth emphasizes nature's soothing powers on the mind and its short term and long term effects. Shelley, on the other hand, expresses the boundless life of nature and its ability of uninhibited expression. Samuel Coleridge, the true believer in the mind's versatility, focuses on the flexibility of one's imagination in the presence of nature. Because of these poets and their poetry, the rest of the world is tempted to take a step into the imagination.

Guy Montag as a Hero Essay

When we hear the word ‘hero’ we think about those who fight for our country out at war or those who put their lives in jeopardy everyday protecting their community like a police officer or fireman, all of these citizens doing this for a small wage in comparison to Rap artists who rhyme profane words making millions of dollars. However you don’t have to live on the streets or have more money than sense to be a hero, you just have to make a difference. In the end identifying someone as a hero or a villain is up to you, it’s in the eye of the beholder. Guy Montag was a fireman for his community and made his mark as a hero through countless acts of courage, bravery, and emotion in the novel Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury. Montag stood up for his rights on books and defied his government, even if it meant losing hisfamily, friends, job, and property all in order to do what he believed in. Bradbury symbolizes Montag as a sympathetic hero through the use of diction. Montag is one of the only characters in the novel to actually feel an array of different emotions and understand them. For instance, after the old woman had stood atop the pile of burning books and burned with them, Montag pondered what he saw, â€Å"There must be something in books, things we can’t imagine, to make a woman stay in a burning house; there must be something there. †(51) and for the first time Montag was exploring feelings he was not very familiar with, like curiosity and sympathy. For the first time the reader gets the feeling that Montag acts differently to the rest of the characters and may be on to something due to his curiosity. Montag shows sympathy in a conversation with Millie, â€Å"A man had to take a long time to put them down on paper†(52) referencing the author of the novels that he and his fellow firemen had burnt. Montag gradually becomes a hero however this results in getting himself into trouble. As the book progresses it is fair to say that â€Å"Curiosity killed the cat† as Montag got caught red handed. Courage, the second attribute that Montag performs,can be seen through the use of imagery. Throughout the novel Montag shows that he has courage to do the right thing even though things are against him. For example, â€Å"Montag places his hand on the woman’s elbow and says, ‘You can come with me'†(39) referring to the old woman who refused to leave her precious books. He tries to convince the old woman to get out of the house which was about to be burned even though other men had already told her to leave. This act requires courage because in a society presented in Fahrenheit 451, nobody cares about others and by trying to help the old woman; Montag creates suspicion toward himself by the other firemen, all because he was trying to save someone’s life. A second example of his courageousness can be found in the river scene. Bradbury paints a picture in the readers mind, â€Å"A storm of light fell upon the river and Montag dived under the great illumination as if the sun had broken the clouds†(139) using specific word choices and exact detail. In addition to the excellent imagery Montag takes a ‘leap of faith’ or in his case ‘plunge of faith’ as he plummets into the river in his attempt at escaping the mechanical hound. Whether it was fluke or not the reader doesn’t know, but Montag safely escaped and stumbled upon an interesting group of men. As stated before, the hero in this book is the main character, Guy Montag which is depicted through character development. Montag is a very curious and careful man, and from the start, different from the rest. A lot of Montag’s character is revealed when he is talking to Clarisse. He’s a good listener and Clarisse spikes his curiosity even more, for example, when she describes to him how she enjoys opening her mouth when it rains, he is extremely surprised, but after she leaves, he tilts his head back and tries it too. (21) Clarisse even remarks, â€Å"You’re not like the others. I’ve seen a few; I know. When I talk, you look at me. When I said something about the moon, you looked at the moon, last night. The others would never do that† (21). He is a very thoughtful man, and has a sensitivity about him. He also is a searcher for a deeper meaning in life. He says, â€Å"We need to be really bothered once in a while. How long is it since you’ve been really bothered? About something important, about something real? † (49). Montag is also imperfect. He is really rash and is filled with a passion that sometimes cripples his goals. He can be destructive, like when he rashly kills Beatty (113). He gets confused and overwhelmed with tough situations and sometimes doesn’t know how to get out of them. All and all Bradbury knew he wanted to make Montag the hero and builds that image bit by bit. Montag represents truth. He represents the want for happiness in our lives and the search for why things are like they are. He wants to find TRUE happiness. Not the happiness everyone else thinks they have. Montag goes on his own search, breaking laws, and doing anything to find out the truth of his own life and that is why he represents the abstract idea of truth. Fahrenheit 451 depicts that a character’s personality may have many more facets than are first visible. Bradbury is able to refract the crystal of Montag’s character, so that it reflects into each reader’s heart a different aspect of humanity. Once Montag becomes more human, Bradbury makes it nearly impossible for the reader to hold grudges about his past. Using this as a tool, Montag, the first apparent antagonist of the story, overcomes the government, which is the real antagonist, and emerges as the hero. From a work literature you have read in or out of school, select a character that, in your opinion, is heroic. In a well-developed composition, identify that character and explain why he or she is heroic. Thesis: Montag is eventually known as a heroic character.

European History: Fascism Essay

After World War I, Europe struggles to return to peace and stability. Many new democratic governments fell apart under the attack of the Great Depression. As a result, new totalitarian regimes emerged such as Fascism and Communism. Totalitarian is a relating system of governments that is centralized and dictatorial and requires complete subservience to the state. By making the most out of new technologies of mass communications, dictators were able to gain support of their populations. Europe’s inability to deal with economic depression and the political movements lead to World War II. People lost faith in capitalism and then turned to a new system of government called fascism, which contributed to economic issues, political movements and dictatorship. At the end of World War I, Europe was faced with economic problems. More than 25 million were unemployed worldwide. (Document #5) The Great depression effected economy, with global industry dropping 36%m and world trade decreasing by 62%. The governments during World War engaged in heavy borrowing which caused iflation. Much of European economy was built on the loans from the United States. One country, Germany had high level of interest, which crushed agriculture and industry, a burden on taxes and external debt. In the beginning of the year of 1931 with the highest unemployment rate of 23. 3. (Document #6) Fascism preached several ideas that benefited a country. Fascists believed that a nation must struggle i n order to be safe and strong, peaceful countries were attacked. Germany, a fascist country under the rule of Adolf Hilter was one of them. (Document #2) Fascism, the new militant political movement, emphasized loyalty to the state and respect to its leader. Politician, Benito Mussolini founder the Fascist Party in 1919. In October 1922, about 30,000 fascist marched to put Mussolini in charge of the government. He abolished democracy, outlawed all political parties, and control the economy by allying the Fascists with the industrialist and landowners. (Document #1) Unlike Hilter joined a political group where their goal was that Germany should overturn the Treaty of Versailles and fight against communism. The political group was later on called the Nazis. Unlike communism, which supported the working and lower class, the Nazis were supported by the middle or lower middle class, whereas later formed a branch of fascism. Germany’s economy was desperate during the depression, and unfortunately people eventually turned to Hilter. (Document #2) Hilter wanted more than political and economic power. He turned to mass communications, such as radios literature, press, paintings and films as propaganda tools. Media that was against Nazism was burned and churches were forbidden to criticize. Hatred towards Jews was one main point about the Nazi ideology. Hilter figured that Jews were the cause of trouble. (Document #12) They passed laws that took away most right from Jews in 1933. By 1932, Nazis were the biggest political leaders and was continuing to grow. (Document #7) Hilter had absolute power for years, causing Germany to change into a totalitarian state. â€Å"Adolf Hilter is Germany and Germany is Adolf Hilter. † Hess says. (Document #2) Fascism was similar to communism. They both were ruled by dictators and denied individual rights. People who were frustrated by the peace treaties after World War I and the Great Depression were please to hear the message and accepted Fascism because it was â€Å"beneficial. † This brought many issues to Europe once again, then later causing World War II.